In 943 the grandsons of Charlemagne divided the Frankish Empire into three separate kingdoms. This division, however, was a result of a civil war among the descendants of Charlemagne that involved not only his grandsons, but powerful nobles who controlled important duchies with the Frankish domains. The treaty did not resolve conflicts or lead to a stable division of powers, and the century following the dissolution of the Frankish Empire was one of the most turbulent in the history of Europe.
In West Franconia, the Carolingian kings following the division of the Empire were weak and unable to resist the Norse raiders that threatened the coasts and waterways. The influence of the central government diminished and in 888, the nobles elected a respected baron rather than a direct descendent of Charlemagne to the throne. But in centuries following, neither elected or hereditary kings were able to restore the former influence of the Frankish king.
The kingdom of Middle Franconia was created with indefensible borders, and did not survive the death of its first king. The region quickly dissolved into independent states of Lorraine, Burgundy, and Lombardy, provinces that retained much influence during the Middle Ages, but as Duchies rather than kingdoms.
In the German kingdom in the east, descendants of Charlemagne continued to rule until the early tenth century, but as in the West, the king of the Germans had limited influence over his nobles. The Eastern most provinces had only converted to Christianity and been incorporated into the Frankish empire for a few generations. Powerful duchies such as Bavaria and Saxony bordered pagan regions to the east, so the Barons were warlike and independent. The ninth century saw Germany descend into rebellion and the disorder spread to Italy, where local princes, merchant cities, Papal states, Lombard nobles, and Byzantine governors vied for control of both Church and state institutions.
But weak kings, anarchy, and civil were not the only source of turbulence facing the Frankish dominions. During the ninth and tenth centuries pagan invaders swept over Europe from three directions. Beginning in about in the late 700s, Viking raiders from Denmark and Norway attacked the coasts and waterways of Britain and continental Europe. They took advantage of the civil wars in the Frankish kingdoms to besiege towns and villages throughout northern and Western Europe and by the late 9th century set up permanent bases in Britain and France, and went on pirating excursions as far south as Italy.
After a century of relentless attacks the Viking menace began to diminish in the early 900s, but by that time the Magyar tribe from the Eastern steppes crossed in the Pannonian basin of Eastern Europe and threatened all of Germany. For over fifty years the pagan Magyars assaulted the German provinces until settling down to form the kingdom of Hungary.
At the same times the north was suffering from Viking raids, Moslem pirates from Africa assaulted the southern coasts of Italy and Christian regions throughout the Mediterranean. The island of Sicily fought off Mohammedan assaults throughout the ninth century before falling to the Saracens. The Balearic Islands and Malta likewise fell under Moslem rule, and other islands and ports such as Sardinia, Corsica, and Marcelles suffered attacks throughout the early middle ages. Once the Moslems had a base of operations in Sicily they ravaged all of Southern Italy and the Pope needed to make an alliance with the Normans (former Vikings) to repel them.
The Western kingdom suffered devastating attacks by Viking raiders throughout the ninth century. In 845, just two years after the Treaty of Verdun resulted in the division of the Empire, the notorious Viking chieftain Ragnar Lodbrok led an enormous Viking army up the Seine river and besieged Paris. The invasion was a disaster and Charles the Bald, king of the west, lost all credibility when he paid a heavy ransom to dispel the raiders. The Viking raids continued for generations and in 860 the Norsemen made a permanent settlement at the mouth of the Loire river, which they used as a base for additional raids to the south.
Twenty years later Paris was besieged again besieged by a Viking chief named Rollo, but this time Odo, the count of Paris, bravely resisted. His valiant leadership was rewarded by his fellow Barons when he was elected king of France in 888. Though Odo ruled wisely, on his death the crown returned to the Carolingians, so it was Charles the Simple, who was on the throne when Rollo returned to France and besieged the city of Rouen at the mouth of the Seine river. Instead of opposing him, however, Charles made Rollo feudal lord of the region on condition that he become Christian and help defend the coast from his fellow Norsemen. Rollo already had a French wife and son, and his descendants became the powerful Dukes of Normandy.
For much of the 10th century, the throne of France remained in the hands of Carolingian kings, but it was of little importance outside of the crown lands surrounding Paris. Many of the Barons, including the Dukes of Normandy, Burgundy, and Aquitaine, were nearly independent and controlled regions greater than the king of France. Finally, in 987, on the death of the childless Louis V, the crown passed to Hugh Capet, a nephew of Odo, Count of Paris and a cousin of Otto II. Although his hereditary claim to the throne was weak, his relation to the powerful Holy Roman Emperor, now ruling in Germany, bestowed his family with a certain status.
Although the French kingship remained weak during the reign of Hugh Capet, the crises of the tenth century were beginning to abate and the French crown reverted to a hereditary dynasty. The direct descendants of Hugh Capet ruled in France for nearly 400 years, and both Valois and Bourbon houses which ruled all the way to the 19th century, were cadet branches of the Capet dynasty.
| 842 | Charlemagne’s Empire is divided by Treaty of Verdun after civil War between grandsons. |
| 840 | Charles the Bald, youngest grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of West Franks after division of Empire. |
| 845 | Viking siege of Paris, led by Ragnar Lodbrok, withdrew after ransom paid. |
| 860 | Vikings chieftain Bjorn Ironside establishes a permanent settlement at the mouth of Loire river. |
| 885 | Odo, Count of Paris, defends the French capital from Viking invasion led by Rollo. |
| 888 | Odo elected King of France after death of Charles the Fat, a Carolingian descendent of the German king. |
| 898 | Charles the Simple pays tribute to Norse raiders, sees influence of French crown near collapse. |
| 911 | Rollo the Viking made Count of Rouen on condition of becoming a Christian and defending French coast. |
| 942 | Richard the Fearless, grandson of Rollo, reigns as Duke of Normandy for over fifty years. |
| 987 | Hugh Capet, cousin of Holy Roman Emperor, elected king of France. House of Capet rules 300+ years. |
Other Important counties in France include Toulouse, Champagne, Flanders, and Anjou.
The first King of East Franconia after the division of the Empire was 'Louis the German' and his descendants continued as Carolingian rulers in the east for nearly eighty years. The kingdom was rarely peaceful however. The leaders of the great Duchies of the East (Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, and Swabia), were nearly independent and always warlike. Petty nobles fought among themselves and Slavic and Baltic tribes were always a threat. The Catholic Church had not been established parts of Germany for more than a few centuries and it did not have the influence it commanded in former Roman lands. Many German Barons were not inclined to respect the rights of the Church and the weak popes of era could not even defend themselves from the scheming nobles of Italy.
The German nobles little motivation to submit to a strong king until an existential threat from the outside presented itself. By the early 900s, a large population of Magyars crossed the Carpathian mountains and descended into the German heartland. By that time the great chieftains of Germany recognized the need to unite behind a strong leader, and elected for Henry the Fowler, Duke of Saxony as King of Germany. Henry put down rebellions within his realm, made a truce with the Magyars, subdued Slavic and Viking invaders, and left a strong, united Germany to his son Otto I (the Great).
Otto continued the work of his father in unifying Germany and strengthening the Church in his realm, but on his own terms. He personally appointed Bishops and Abbots in order to consolidate his power, and arranged marriages among his nobles in order to enforce their loyalties. After decisively defeating the Magyars, Otto led an army across the Alps, deposed the corrupt nobles of Lombardy and had himself crowned as King of the Romans. After rescuing the Pope from warring Barons, he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962 in Rome. Although Charlemagne is was crowned king of the Romans two centuries before, the real history of the Holy Roman Empire, including the Kingdoms of Germany and Northern Italy, begins with Otto the Great, and the Ottonian dynasty he founded.
Otto the Great was elected king of Germany in 936 and ruled for almost forty years. By the end of his reign, the kingdoms of Germany, northern Italy and Burgundy were at peace and united under the Holy Roman Emperor, the Papacy was restored to some level if independence, the Magyars were subdued, and the Viking threat was diminished. Much of Europe was at peace and the resulting period of cultural advance was called the "Ottonian Renaissance".
The last of the Ottonian rulers was Henry II, who ruled from 1002 to 1024. Henry was deeply religious and did much to support the interests of the Church. Both he and his wife Cunigunde of Luxemburg are canonized saints. In spite of their leadership, however, the German princes who followed them tended to usurp the Church's power by appointing political loyalists as bishops. At the same time the Papacy became highly dependent on imperial power. These problems came to a head in the 11th century with the Investiture controversy and the reforms of Pope Gregory VII.
| 615 | Missions of St. Columbanus and the Irish Monks to the Rhine Valley |
| 750 | Mission of St. Boniface and his associates to Frisia and Northern Germany. |
| 780 | Charlemagne conquers Saxons, conversion of Saxon leader Wittikind to Christianity. |
| 842 | Charlemagne’s Empire is divided by Treaty of Verdun. |
| 862 | Mission of Sts. Cyril and Methodius to the Slavs of Great Moravia. (Czechs) |
| 895 | Magyar tribes migrate to Pannonia, west of Carpathian mountains, threatening Germany. |
| 907 | Magyars defeat Bavarians at Battle of Pressburg, pillage German provinces. |
| 919 | Henry the Fowler, elected king of Germany, unites German Barons to oppose Magyars. |
| 936 | Otto the Great unites Barons, puts down rebellions in Germany and Italy, and is crowned king of Italy. |
| 955 | Magyar raids to the interior of Germany, brought to an end after the Battle of Lechfield. |
| 962 | Otto the Great is crowned as Holy Roman Emperor. Rules over Italy, Germany, and Burgundy. |
| 1000 | Conversion of St. Stephen, king of the Magyars. Hungary becomes a Christian kingdom. |
| 1002 | Holy Roman Emperor St. Henry II, and St. Cunigunde of Luxembourg strengthen Church in Germany. |